Basic concepts and definitions PUB47

Basic concepts and definitions
When working on problems of groundwater flow, the geologist or engineer has to find reliable values for the hydraulic characteristics of the geological formations through which the groundwater is moving. Pumping tests have proved to be one of the most effective ways of obtaining such values.
Analyzing and evaluating pumping test data, however, is as much an art asa science.
It is a science because it is based on theoretical models that the geologist or engineer must understand and on thorough investigations that he must conduct into the geological formations in the area of the test. It is an art because different types of aquifers can exhibit similar drawdown behaviours, which demand interpretational skills on the part of the geologist or engineer. We hopethat this book will serve as a guide in both the science and the art.
The equations we present in this book are from well hydraulics. We have omitted any lengthy derivations of the equations because these can be found in the original publications listed in our References. With some exceptions, we present the equations in their final form, emphasizing the assumptions and conditions that underliethem, and outlining the procedures that are to be followed for their successful application.
‘Hard rocks’, both as potential sources of water and depositories for chemical or radioactive wastes, are receiving increasing attention in hydrogeology. We shall therefore be discussing some recent developments in the interpretation of pumping test data from such rocks.
This chapter summarizes the basicconcepts and definitions of terms relevant to our subject. The next chapter describes how to conduct a pumping test. The remaining chapters all deal with the analysis and evaluation of pumping test data from a variety of aquifer types or aquifer systems, and from tests conducted under particular technical conditions.

1.1 Aquifer, aquitard, and aquiclude
An aquifer is defined as a saturatedpermeable geological unit that is permeable enough to yield economic quantities of water to wells. The most common aquifers are unconsolidated sand and gravels, but permeable sedimentary rocks such as sandstone and limestone, and heavily fractured or weathered volcanic and crystalline rocks can also be classified as aquifers.
An aquitard is a geological unit that is permeable enough to transmit water insignificant quantities when viewed over large areas and long periods, but its permeability is not sufficient to justify production wells being placed in it. Clays, loams and shales are typical aquitards.
An aquiclude is an impermeable geological unit that does not transmit water at all. Dense unfractured igneous or metamorphic rocks are typical aquicludes. In nature, truly impermeable geologicalunits seldom occur; all of them leak to some extent, and must therefore be classified as aquitards. In practice, however, geological units can be classified as aquicludes when their permeability is several orders of magnitude lower than that of an overlying or underlying aquifer.
The reader will note that the above definitions are relative ones; they are purposely imprecise with respect topermeability.


1.2 Aquifer types
There are three main types of aquifer: confined, unconfined, and leaky (Figure 1.1).

1.2.1 Confined aquifer
A confined aquifer (Figure 1. IA) is bounded above and below by an aquiclude. In a confined aquifer, the pressure of the water is usually higher than that of the atmosphere, so that if a well taps the aquifer, the water in it stands above the top of the aquifer, oreven above the ground surface. We then speak of a free-flowing or artesian well.

1.2.2 Unconfined aquifer
An unconfined aquifer (Figure l.lB), also known as a watertable aquifer, is bounded below by an aquiclude, but is not restricted by any confining layer above it. Its upper boundary is the watertable, which is free to rise and fall. Water in a well penetrating an unconfined aquifer is at...