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Statements
A. Short additions:
1. Too/so – Neither/either

To make an affirmative addition to an affirmative statement, use so or too.To make a negative addition to a negative statement, use neither or not either.Be Careful! When you make additions with so and neither, place these words at the beginning of the sentence, and invert the subject and the auxiliary. | * Sam is aperfectionist. So is Jerry.Ex: independent clause + so + auxiliary be + subject. * Jerry is too.Ex: Subject + auxiliary be + too * Jerry has never liked liberal ideas. Neither has Sam.Ex: independent clause + neither + auxiliary have + subject. * Sam hasn’t either.Ex: Subject + auxiliary have (negative) + either * Martha got married last year. So did Helen.NOT So Helen did. * Sam didn’t go tocollege. Neither did Jerry.NOT Neither Jerry did. |

2. Tag Questions

In tag questions, use a negative tag after an affirmative statement. Use an affirmative tag after a negative statement.Use tag questions to check information or to comment on a situation. You expect the listener to agree with you, and your voice falls on the tag.Use tag questions to get information. You expect an answer,and your voice rises on the tag. | * The birth-order theory makes sense, doesn’t it?Ex: independent clause (with a verb) , + auxililary do/does (because it’s a verb) + it + ?A: You’re an only child, aren’t you?B: Uh-huh. So was my dad.A: That’s an interesting idea, isn’t it?B: Yeah. It’s fascinating.A: You have a sister, don’t you?B: No. Actually, I have a brother. |

B. Reported Speech:Reported speech, traditionally called indirect speech, refers to the use of a noun clause to report a person’s words, thoughts, beliefs, etc. To better understand reported speech, it is helpful to first look at direct speech, which can also be used to report a person’s words, thoughts, and beliefs.

1. Affirmative, negative and interrogative statements:

question with interrogative | Heasked:“Where does she live?“ | He asked where she lived.Ex: Subject + verb + question (without the auxiliary) |
question without interrogative | He asked: “Does she live in London?“ | He asked whether she lived in London.
He asked if she lived in London.Ex: subject + verb + whether/if + question (omitting the auxiliary) |

C. Direct and indirect questions:
1. Yes/No questions
2.Wh/information questions













3. Indirect questions
If we do not begin a question directly, but begin it with something like Can you tell me...? / Do you know...? / I wonder if...? The word order is the same as in an affirmative statement.
* Direct question: What is he doing?
Indirect question: Do you know what he is doing?
* Direct question:Where have they been?
Indirect question: I wonder where they have been?
If the direct question contains the auxiliary do, we omit it in the indirect question.
* Direct question: What do you want?
Indirect question: Can you tell me what you want?
* Direct question: When did she leave?
Indirect question: Do you know when she left?

4. Question intonations:
The normal intonation contoursfor questions in English use:
* final rising pitch for a Yes/No question
* Are you coming today?
* final falling pitch for a Wh-question
* When are you coming? Where are you going?

D. Passive voice statements:
1. With and without by
Without by:
Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however, who orwhat is performing the action.
Example: My bike was stolen.
In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however, who did it.
Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example shows:
Example: A mistake was made.
In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not blame anyone (e.g. You...