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25 Learning Principles to Guide Pedagogy and the


Design of Learning Environments


Applying the Science of Learning: What We Know About Learning and How We Can Improve the Teaching-Learning Interaction


1. Contiguity Effects.

Ideas that need to be associated should be presented contiguously in space and time in the multimedia learning environment. For example, the verbal label fora picture needs to be placed spatially near the picture on the display, not on the other side of the screen. An explanation of an event should be given when the event is depicted rather than many minutes, hours, or days later.

• Implications
Design the learning materials and lesson plans so that elements and ideas that need to be related are presented near each other in space andtime.


• References
Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. NY: Cambridge University Press.

2. Perceptual-motor Grounding.

Whenever a concept is first introduced, it is important to ground it in a concrete perceptual-motor experience. The learner will ideally visualize a picture of the concept, will be able to manipulate its parts and aspects, and will observe how it functionsover time. The teacher and learner will also gain a common ground (shared knowledge) of the learning material. Perceptual-motor experience is particularly important when there is a need for precision, such as getting directions to find a spatial location. For example, a course in statistics is not grounded in perceptual-motor experience when the teacher presents symbols and formulae that have nomeaning to the student and cannot be visualized.

• Implications
Teachers should ground new concepts in perceptual-motor experiences when concepts are first introduced and when the content needs to be tracked with a high level of precision. This practice facilitates comprehension, learning, and later use of the information.

• References
Glenberg, A. M., & Kaschak, M. (2002).Grounding language in action. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9, 558-565.
Glenberg, A.M., & Robertson, D.A. (1999). Indexical understanding of instructions. Discourse Processes, 28, 1-26.



3. Dual Code and Multimedia Effects.

Information is encoded and remembered better when it is delivered in multiple modes (verbal and pictorial), sensory modalities (auditory and visual), or media(computers and lectures) than when delivered in only a singe mode, modality, or medium. Dual codes provide richer and more varied representations that allow more memory retrieval routes. However, the amount of information should not overwhelm the learner because attention is split or cognitive capacities are overloaded.

• Implications
Design the learning materials so that information getsdelivered in multiple modes, modalities, and media, but do not overwhelm the learner with too much to learn or too much to attend to, two primary causes of cognitive overload.


• References
Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. NY: Cambridge University Press.
Moreno, R., & Valdez, A. (2005). Cognitive Load and Learning Effects of Having Students Organize Pictures and Words inMultimedia Environments: The Role of Student Interactivity and Feedback. Educational Technology Research and Development. 53, 35-45.

4. Testing Effect.

There are direct and indirect effects of taking frequent tests. One indirect benefit is that frequent testing keeps students constantly engaged in the material. Although students will learn from testing without receiving feedback, there isless forgetting if students receive informative feedback about their performance. Multiple tests slow forgetting better than a single test. Formative assessment refers to the use of testing results to guide teachers in making decisions about what to teach. Learners also benefit if they use test results as a guide for their own learning.

• Implications
Use frequent testing to enhance...