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Ecological Economics 68 (2009) 2066–2077

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Ecological Economics
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / e c o l e c o n

ANALYSIS

The carbon footprint of UK households 1990–2004: A socio-economically disaggregated,
quasi-multi-regional input–output model
Angela Druckman ⁎, Tim Jackson
ESRC Research Groupon Lifestyles, Values and Environment (RESOLVE), University of Surrey (D3), Guildford GU2 7XH, UK

article

info

Article history:
Received 4 June 2008
Received in revised form 19 December 2008
Accepted 22 January 2009
Available online 23 February 2009
Keywords:
Carbon footprint
Input–output analysis
UK
Households
Decoupling
Socio-economic segmentation

abstract
This paperpresents a socio-economically disaggregated framework for attributing CO2 emissions to people's
high level functional needs. Based around a quasi-multi-regional input–output (QMRIO) model, the study, in
theory, takes into account all CO2 emissions that arise from energy used in production of goods and services
to satisfy UK household demand, whether the emissions occur in the UK or abroad. Resultsshow that CO2
emissions attributable to households were 15% above 1990 levels in 2004, and that although absolute
decoupling occurred between household expenditure and CO2 during the UK's switch from coal to gas in the
early 1990s, since then only slight relative decoupling is evident. The proportion of CO2 that arises outside UK
borders in support of UK consumption is rising, and reducingthese emissions is particularly problematic in a
global trading system. Investigation into the carbon footprint of different segments of the UK population
shows wide variation: the segment with the highest carbon footprint emits 64% more CO2 than the segment
with the lowest. Results show that recreation and leisure are responsible for over one quarter of CO2
emissions in a typical UK household in2004. We conclude that expanding lifestyle aspirations are significant
factors in driving household CO2 emissions, but the study also emphasizes that attention must be paid to the
infrastructures and institutions that result in considerable amounts of CO2 being locked up in basic
household activities through which people meet their everyday needs for subsistence, protection, and
communicationwith family and friends. The findings highlight the sheer scale of the challenge facing UK
policy-makers, and suggest that policies should be targeted towards segments of society responsible for the
highest carbon footprints.
© 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The premise of this study is that the responsibility for carbon dioxide
(CO2) emissions from economic activitylies with people's attempts to
satisfy certain functional needs and desires. In simple economic terms,
our needs and desires are expressed in the consumer demand for
commodities, and it is this demand for goods and services which drives
the production processes that consume resources – including energy
resources – and emit pollutants – including CO2 and other greenhouse
gases (Daly, 1996;Daly and Cobb, 1989; HM Government, 2005; UN,
2002; UNCED, 1992). To help us understand the link between the
attempted satisfaction of human needs and desires and CO2 emissions,
and to understand the scale of emissions reductions that are required,
we ask the following questions. How much CO2 is attributable to which
kinds of needs and desires? Is the highest amount attributable tosubsistence needs such as food and clothing? Or protection (housing and
security)? Or our leisure demands? Or to the need to communicate with
our family and friends? Do some segments of UK society have a higher

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 1483 686679; fax: +44 1483 686671.
E-mail address: a.druckman@surrey.ac.uk (A. Druckman).
0921-8009/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights...