Fresadora

An Introduction to R
Notes on R: A Programming Environment for Data Analysis and Graphics
Version 2.15.2 (2012-10-26)

W. N. Venables, D. M. Smith
and the R Core Team

Copyright
Copyright
Copyright
Copyright
Copyright

c
c
c
c
c

1990 W. N. Venables
1992 W. N. Venables & D. M. Smith
1997 R. Gentleman & R. Ihaka
1997, 1998 M. Maechler
1997– R Core Team

Copyright c1999–2012 R Core Team

Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the
copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed
under the terms of a permissionnotice identical to this one.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions, except that this permission notice
may be stated in a translation approved by the R Core Team.
ISBN 3-900051-12-7

i

Table of Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 1
1

Introduction and preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11

2

Vectors and assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Vector arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Generating regularsequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Logical vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Missing values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Character vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 10
Index vectors; selecting and modifying subsets of a data set . . . . 11
Other types of objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Objects, their modes and attributes . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4

4

2
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6

Simple manipulations; numbers and vectors . . 7
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.52.6
2.7
2.8

3

The R environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Related software and documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
R and statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
R and the window system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Using R interactively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
An introductory session . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Getting help with functions and features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
R commands, case sensitivity, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recall and correction of previous commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Executing commands from or diverting output to a file . . . . . . . .
Data permanency and removing objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Intrinsic attributes: mode and length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Changing the length of an object. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Getting and setting attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The class of an object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13
14
14
15

Ordered and unordered factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.1
4.2
4.3

A specific example . . . . ....