Trabajo En Inglés Túneles

TUNNELS

With more than six million kilometers of highways and 240,000 kilometers of railways snaking across the United States, life above ground has become increasingly congested. Tunnels provide some of the last available space for cars and trains, water and sewage, even power and communication lines. Today, it's safe to bore through mountains and burrow beneath oceans -- but it was notalways this way. In fact, it took engineers thousands of years to perfect the art of digging tunnels.


|[pic] |
|Ancient Roman aqueduct |


Before cars and trains, tunnels carried only water.
Roman engineers created the most extensive network of tunnels in the ancient world. They built sloping structures, called aqueducts, to carry water from mountainsprings to cities and villages. They carved underground chambers and built elegant arch structures not only to carry fresh water into the city, but to carry wastewater out.




|[pic] |
|Worsley Underground |
|Canal Tunnel |


By the 17th century, tunnels were being constructed for canals.
Without roads or railways to transport rawmaterials from the country to the city, watery highways became the best way to haul freight over great distances.







|[pic] |
|Holland Tunnel |


With trains and cars came a tremendous expansion in tunnel construction.
During the 19th and 20th centuries, the development of railroad and motor vehicle transportation led to bigger, better, andlonger tunnels.





|[pic] |
|Tunnel boring machine |


Today, not even mountains and oceans stand in the way.
With the latest tunnel construction technology, engineers can bore through mountains, under rivers, and beneath bustling cities. Before carving a tunnel, engineers investigate ground conditions by analyzing soil and rock samples and drillingtest holes.


There are three steps to a tunnel's success.

Today, engineers know that there are three basic steps to building a stable tunnel. The first step is excavation: engineers dig through the earth with a reliable tool or technique. The second step is support: engineers must support any unstable ground around them while they dig. The final step is lining: engineers add the finaltouches, like the roadway and lights, when the tunnel is structurally sound.

Based on the setting, tunnels can be divided into three major types:


|[pic] |
|Section of Brunel's |
|tunnel shield |


Soft-ground tunnels:
are typically shallow and are often used as subways, water-supply systems, and sewers. Because the ground is soft, a supportstructure, called a tunnel shield, must be used at the head of the tunnel to prevent it from collapsing.





|[pic] |
|Hoosac Tunnel interior |


Rock tunnels:
require little or no extra support during construction and are often used as railways or roadways through mountains. Years ago, engineers were forced to blast through mountains with dynamite. Todaythey rely on enormous rock-chewing contraptions called tunnel boring machines.




|[pic] |
|Tunnel segment, |
|Boston Harbor |


Underwater tunnels:
are particularly tricky to construct, as water must be held back while the tunnel is being built. Early engineers used pressurized excavation chambers to prevent water from gushing intotunnels. Today, prefabricated tunnel segments can be floated into position, sunk, and attached to other sections.







|[pic] |Explosives |
| |Gunpowder, nitro-glycerine, and dynamite allowed tunnel diggers to blast through |
|...