Razon Fija

Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Animal Behavior Processes
1989, Vol. 15, No. 4, 383-392

Copy~lht 1 989 by the American PsychologicalAssociation, Inc.
0097-7403/89/$00.75

Fixed-Ratio Schedules Increase Generalized Self-Control: Preference
for Large Rewards Despite High Effort or Punishment
R obert Eisenberger, Frances Weier, Fred A. Masterson, and Laura Y. Theis
U niversity ofDelaware
Three experiments investigated the effectsof fixed-ratio reinforcement on generalizedself-control
involving high effort and punishment. In Experiment 1, rats received food in a runway for the
completion of each round trip (continuous-reinforcement group) or every fifth round trip (fixedratio group). Control rats received food at the same temporal intervals as these groups but
without anyinstrumental requirement. When all rats were next given a series of choices between
a large food reward requiring high lever force versus a small reward requiring low lever force, the
fixed-ratio rats showed the greatest self-control. In Experiments 2 and 3, rats were rewarded on
a continuous or fixed-ratio schedule followedby choice between a large food reward accompanied
by intermittentshock versus a small or absent food reward without shock. The fixed-ratio rats
again showed the greatest self-control.

S elf-control refers to an individual's decision to undergo
t he increased costs that may be necessary to achieve the larger
o f alternative goals. In the natural environment, self-control
m ay involve a required long delay of reinforcement (Mischel,
1974), high effort(Eisenberger, Mitchell, & Masterson, 1985;
M ischel, 1974), or punishment (Dollard & Miller, 1950). Most
r esearch on self-control involves delay, the choice between
t he early receipt of a small reinforcer versus the deferred
d elivery of a large reinforcer (Ainslie, 1974, 1975; Logue,
1988; Navarick & Fantino, 1976; Rachlin, 1974, 1976; Rachfin & Green, 1972).
A v ariety of findings suggest thatself-control involving
d elay is hindered by the precipitous decrease of the value of
r einforcers with initial delay, there being a slower decline with
f urther delay (Aiuslie, 1974; Ainslie & Herrnstein, 1981;
G reen, Fisher, Perlow, & Sherman, 1981; Green & Snyderm an, 1980; Navarick & Fantino, 1976; Rachlin & Green,
1972). Research using pigeons, rats, and children indicates
t hat theeffects of reinforcement delay depend on experience,
w ith the repeated receipt of long delays acting to increase
s ubsequent self-control in both familiar and novel contexts
( Eisenberger & Adornetto, 1986; Eisenberger & Masterson,
1986; Eisenberger, Masterson, & Lowman, 1982; Logue &
M azur, 1981; Logue, Rodriguez, Pena-Correal, & Mauro,
1984; Mazur & Logne, 1978). The present researchinvestig ates the possibility that experience with rewarded high effort
m ight produce similar generalized effects on self-control inv olving required effort and punishment.
A dding a response requirement to delay was found to lessen
pigeons" choice of a delayed large reward (Grossbard & Mazur,
1986), indicating that required high effort may reduce selfc ontrol. Research on the generalized effectsof rewarded high
e ffort suggests that effort training might increase self-control
i nvolving effort. Various findings suggest that required high
e ffort with one or more behaviors raises the effort subse-

q uently exerted in other behaviors. For example, rats' speed
o f runway traversal during extinction was greater following a
r equired high number of lever presses per reinforcer(MeCuller, Wong, & Amsel, 1976; Wong & Amsel, 1976). Runw ay speed during reinforced trials, as well as extinction, was
g reater after a series of maintenance feedings that required
t he rats to gnaw pellets through wire mesh, as compared to
feedings with the food placed on the cage floor (Eisenberger,
M asterson, & Over, 1982). The rate of free-operant shuttling
b ack and forth in a runway,...