English

Translation procedures
The translation procedures that are available in cases of lacunae, or lexical gaps, include the following:
Adaptation
An adaptation, also known as a free translation, is a translation procedure whereby the translator replaces a social, or cultural, reality in the source text with a corresponding reality in the target text; this new reality would be more usual to theaudience of the target text.

For example, in the Belgian comic book The Adventures of Tintin, Tintin's trusty canine sidekick Milou, is translated as Snowy in English, Bobbie in Dutch, and Struppi in German; likewise the detectives Dupond and Dupont become Thomson and Thompson in English, Jansen and Janssen in Dutch, Schultze and Schulze in German, Hernández and Fernández in Spanish.
This isparticularly notable in the translation of the names of Disney characters, as many names employ similar vocal sounds or puns.
Adaptation is often used when translating poetry, works of theatre and advertising.
Borrowing
Borrowing is a translation procedure whereby the translator uses a word or expression from the source text in the target text holus-bolus.
Borrowings are normally printed in italicsif they are not considered to have been naturalized in the target language.
Calque
Calque is a translation procedure whereby a translator translates an expression (or, occasionally, a word) literally into the target language, translating the elements of the expression word for word...

Compensation
Compensation is a translation procedure whereby the translator solves the problem of aspectsof the source text that cannot take the same form in the target language by replacing these aspects with other elements or forms in the source text.
For example, many languages have two forms of the second person pronoun: an informal form and a formal form (the French tu and vous, the Spanish tú, vos and usted, the German du and Sie, to name but three), while most modern-day dialects of Englishno longer recognize the T-V distinction, and have retained the you form only. Hence, to translate a text from one of these languages to English, the translator may have to compensate by using a first name or nickname, or by using syntactic phrasing that are viewed as informal in English (I'm, you're, gonna, dontcha, etc.), or by using English words of the formal and informal registers.
ParaphraseParaphrase, sometimes called periphrasis, is a translation procedure whereby the translator replaces a word in the source text by a group of words or an expression in the target text.
An extreme example of paraphrase can be found in the BBC reports of June 22, 2004 of the identification of the "most untranslatable" word. The word chosen is Ilunga, a word supposedly from a language in theDemocratic Republic of the Congo. The BBC article states that "Ilunga means 'a person who is ready to forgive any abuse for the first time, to tolerate it a second time, but never a third time'."
Incidentally, the word Ilunga is of questionable provenance, as some Congolese (notably the Congo government) claim that it is simply a name, without additional connotations. See the article Ilunga for moreinformation.
Another example of paraphrase is the Portuguese word saudade, which is often translated at a loss into English as "missing a person who is gone".
Translator's note
A translator's note is a note (usually a footnote or an endnote) added by the translator to the target text to provide additional information pertaining to the limits of the translation, the cultural background or any otherexplanations.
Some translation exams allow or demand such notes. Some translators regard resorting to notes as a failure, although this view is not shared by most professionals.
Examples
In the case of translating the English word have to Hebrew, Arabic, Finnish, Turkish, Hindi, Urdu or Irish, some difficulty may be found. There is no specific verb with this meaning in these languages....