Teoria Del Poder

NB: This diagram shows the ladder of political advancement (cursus honorum) during the late Republic. The straight ladder shows the typical path of advancement (theoretically open to all freeborn male citizens), beginning with election to quaestor, the lowest office, and proceeding to consul, the highest (of course very few men made it that far; it was quite exceptional when a man like Cicero,who did not come from a noble family, was elected consul). Red text designates “curule magistrates,” who had the right to sit on a special ivory folding stool (sella curulis) as a symbol of their office; they also had the right to wear the purple-bordered toga (toga praetexta). Offices marked with an asterisk carried imperium, the highest political authority, which included the right to command anarmy, to interpret and carry out the law, and to pass sentences of death. Magistrates whose title began with “pro” were in charge of provinces; the Senate normally conferred these after the men had finished their term of office in Rome. The more important provinces, especially those requiring large military forces, were assigned to ex-consuls, while the less significant provinces were governed byex-praetors.
During the Empire, most of these offices remained in place, though their functions changed. Most significantly, imperium was now reserved for the emperor, and advancement in rank proceeded in orderly stages based on conditions laid down by the emperors rather than through competitive electioneering. Thus the cursus honorum changed from a ladder of power (with important social statusattached) to a ladder of primarily social rank and status. The cursus honorum was, of course, reserved for men; during the entire period of Roman history, women were prohibited from holding political office, though in the Empire their roles as mothers, wives, and daughters of emperors gave a few women very high social status and even a kind of indirect rank. Even elite women who were not members ofthe imperial family sometimes claimed the rank of their fathers or husbands (e.g., as consulares feminae, “consular women”).
Principles of Structure:
These principles evolved under the impetus of the “conflict of orders,” a struggle between two social classes, the patricians and plebeians, that occurred primarily during the fifth and fourth centuries BCE.
* system of checks and balances* collegiality—at least two in each magistracy
* limited terms of political office (usually one-year term; eligible for election to higher office in 2-3 years. and for re-election to the same office in 10 years)
* in theory was a participatory democracy, but in practice had oligarchic elements (primarily governed by an elite class) and representative elements (officesrequired popular election, and tribunes represented a plebeian constituency)
* crucial role played by Senate, which was composed solely of ex-magistrates, was the only permanent governing body and the only body where debate was possible. The Senate controlled all finances, foreign affairs, and state administration and had by far the greatest social prestige.
Magistrates:
2 *consuls—chiefmagistrates who convened and presided over the Senate and assemblies, initiated and administered legislation, served as generals in military campaigns, and represented Rome in foreign affairs. Consuls could appoint and/or serve as *dictator for up to 6 months in times of emergency when the constitution was suspended. When their term of office was completed, consuls usually governed a province as*proconsul.
8 *praetors—served primarily as judges in law courts, but could convene the Senate and assemblies; they assumed administrative duties of consuls when these were absent from Rome. When their term of office was completed, praetors might govern a province as *propraetor.
2 censors—elected every 5 years for terms of 1½ years; revised lists of senators and equestrians; conducted census of...